Plant and animal partnership Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Plant and animal partnership - Research Paper Example In the most fundamental relationship, animals need plants in order to get the most basic sustenance, outside of which animal life is not possible. This is because plants are able to manufacture their own organic matter to grow themselves, from sunlight and owing to their ability to make use of sunlight to do so with photosynthesis. On the other hand, such distinctions in roles between plants and animals are not clear cut and absolute, owing to the fact that some organisms, such as fungi, do not rely on chlorophyll to thrive, and yet are able to thrive as well, and can form the basis of life for some animals. Moreover, as early literature on plant and animals partnerships observe, some sponges and hydras, among others, are animals that also contain chlorophyll. Meanwhile it has been observed that where animals have chlorophyll and are able to grow their own food within, that chlorophyll eventually is traced to plant life. Fungi also thrive on organic materials that are based on plants , meanwhile. In general, therefore, the most fundamental relationship is that of plants being the providers of the organic matter on which animals and the rest of life rely on to survive. On the other hand, plants need carbon dioxide from animals to be able to perform the photosynthesis that is the originator of this relationship chain, and which allows plants to make the organic substance, glucose, on which the whole of the animal kingdom stands on (BBC, 2013; Farabee, 2007; Wilson, 2013; Reckitt Benckiser, n.d.; Brandt, 1882; Columbia University Press, 2013; Schulze et al., 2005, p. 602-605). The literature notes that a formal term used to denote the partnership relationship between plants and animals as symbiosis. In the examples above, where animal life is able to incorporate chlorophyll from plants and grow their own sustenance, the partnership is made evident by the fact that it is plants that are the ultimate source of the chlorophyll, and plants themselves benefit from the e xpiration of carbon dioxide from animals which they then need to perform photosynthesis. (Brandt, 1882; Schulze et al, 2005, pp. 602-605). On the other hand, the hallmark of true symbiotic relationships is that of two organisms that need each other in a fundamental way, without which both parties cannot survive, but the definition also extends to other kinds of relationships, but the distinguishing mark is that of mutual derived benefits and good from each other’s existence and fundamental ways of living and acting in their environments. For instance, in herbivores such as cockroaches and cows, the cows benefit from intestinal bacteria that allow for the breaking down of the cellulose that they eat. The bacteria meanwhile are able to thrive from that cellulose. Without the other, neither party is able to survive. On the other hand, both bacteria and cows rely on the plants to survive, even as the plants that they consume benefit from the respiration activities of both. More o bvious examples are the relationships between the fig and the fig wasp, where the fig wasps provide fertilizers that the fig thrives on, while the fig meanwhile provides food for the fig wasp larva. The same is true for the yucca moth and the yucca plant, where the same symbiotic relationship between plant and animal is observed (Columbia University Press, 2013; Schulze

Management assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Management - Assignment Example eer has to do with business management in a busy organization but I intend to change to a career associated with information technology and work with the American Red Cross organization. American Red Cross is part of the Global Red Cross society that responds to emergencies and offer immediate help whenever required. I have a lot of interest in the digital technology and feel that I need to help and rescue many people who suffer injuries during disasters, accidents, or clashes. My career change relates to the current technology by the use of the social media and mobile application to alert the organization I intend to work with and the entire team on any urgent help that may be required. I intend to work as a volunteer first to help the management in digitalizing almost all the activities involving rescue missions. The career transition will involve many changes especially on my way of thinking as a rescuer, a volunteer, and not just a manager in an office. After changing my career, I will assist the other members of staff who are not conversant with the modern technology and will require the majority of them to have application software that will enable reporting of such incidents. I expect some workers to shift department to allow technological experts in some departments that will handle the digital transmission of live data from accident scenes giving the maps of the location. I am ready for the career change and feel that I will be of great help to the Red Cross community once I join them as a volunteer. I will work hand in convincing the management leaders to adopt digital technology such as the use of the social media and digital maps to respond to emergencies. Some natural calamities such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, and accidents have risen to high levels requiring a faster means to communicate and get the Red Cross rescuers ready for the missions. Technology will play a great part in ensuring that everyone arrives at the scene on time and I will

MicroRNA-21 Concentrations in Breast Cancer

MicroRNA-21 Concentrations in Breast Cancer Direct Serum Assay for MicroRNA-21 Concentrations in Early and Advanced Breast Cancer Abstract Background Small noncoding RNA molecules known as microRNAs (miRs) are involved in the regulation of gene expression. The hypothesis was based on the biomarker, miR-21 present in the serum, which related to the presence and stage of breast cancer. The direct application of reverse-transcription quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) in a direct serum assay has been used for the quantification and detection of the miR-21 in breast cancer patients. Methods A total of 102 breast cancer patients with varying stages of breast cancer and 20 healthy female patients were tested by the RT-qPCR applied directly in serum assay for miR-21. Results Detection for RT-qPCR-DS was limited to 0.625 µl of serum. miR-21 levels detected in the healthy donors were comparatively lower with respect to breast cancer patients with different stage of the disease. A significantly higher levels of miR-21 was detected in patients with stage IV breast cancer compared to patients with other stages of the disease. The odds ratio was 1.796 and area under the curve was 0.721 for the distinction of loco regional breast cancers and healthy donors. Multivariate analysis confirmed that a correlation of miR-21 concentrations and stage of breast cancer existed. Conclusion- The novel RT-qPCR-DS serves as a better technique in detecting circulating miR. miR-21 proves to be a significant biomarker for breast cancer, which could also probably detect the progression of the disease. Further research could lead to improved breast cancer care by this serum biomarker as a key tool. EVALUATION Traditional methods Mammography (also known as film mammography) is a traditional method for screening breast cancer (Boyd et al., 2007). Its principle lies in the use of low-dose x-rays. Soft tissue such as fat is radiographically lucent, which appears dark on a mammogram. In contrast, stroma and epithelial tissue are radiographically dense, which is termed mammographic density, appearing light on a mammogram (Boyd et al., 2007). It has been established that the more immense the density, the more association it had with regard to the greater risk of breast cancer. A dense tissue present in 75% or more of the breast poses a risk of breast cancer (Boyd et al., 2007).   A limitation of this method revolves around the fact that expansive mammographic density may be difficult to detect by mammography, thereby indicating a false negative (Boyd et al., 2007). Cancers may be masked by surrounding dense breast tissue, limiting the sensitivity of the screening (Boyd et al., 2007), thereby increasing the risk o f breast cancer (Pisano et al., 2005). High false positive results and costs are drawbacks of mammography (Asaga et al., 2010).   An alternative breast cancer screening technique is the MRI, which is sensitive, but its limitations include the lack of cost-effectiveness and specificity (Esserman et al., 2007). Digital mammography, an upgrade to film mammography allowed the manipulation of the degree of contrast on digital images. This allowed the differentiation of dense breast tissues from malignant cells (Pisano et al., 2005). Women under 50 years of age, with dense breast tissue or those who are pre-menopausal or peri-menopausal were mostly detected by digital mammography (Pisano et al., 2005). In comparison to the film mammography method, digital mammography has an increased cost (1.5-4 times more), but is quicker at developing the image (Pisano et al., 2005). BRCA1 and BRCA2 are tumour markers used to identify individuals who are at risk of developing breast cancer via inheritance (Duffy, 2001). Only 5-10% cases of breast cancers are hereditary. 80-85% risk of developing breast cancer was reported in individuals carrying either the BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene (Duffy, 2001). Cancer antigen 15-3 (CA 15-3) is a gene product of the MUC1 gene. Overexpression of MUC1 gene in malignant breast tumours allows CA 15-3 to be used as a tumour marker for breast cancer (Kabel, 2017). False positive results were reported in benign breast and benign liver diseases (Kabel, 2017). The serum concentration of patients with elevated levels of CA 15-3 became more detectable as the size of tumour and severity of the disease increased. Therefore, this is suitable as a prognostic and pharmacokinetic biomarker (Kabel, 2017). The lack of sensitivity for women with early disease have been a main limitation of CA 15-3 biomarker (Duffy et al., 2010). Rising levels of another extensively used biomarker, carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) indicated poor treatment or the risk of recurrence following treatment (Kabel, 2017). The lack of disease sensitivity and specificity prevents the use of CEA as predictive biomarker (Kabel, 2017). Estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR) and human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER-2) serve as pharmacokinetic biomarkers (Kabel, 2017). Relevance to current article Elevated levels of miR-21 was observed in breast cancer patients (N = 102) compared to healthy females (N = 20) in the study done by Asaga et al., (2010). Detection of circulating miR by RT-qPCR-DS was robust and effective (Asaga et al., 2010). The differentiation of patients with stage I, stage II or stage III from patients with stage IV breast cancer was possible with the direct assay, but not by the standard RT-qPCR (Asaga et al., 2010). The assay had a sensitivity and specificity of 67% and 75% respectively in distinguishing loco regional breast cancer patients from healthy patients. The specificity and sensitivity in distinguishing patients with stage IV breast cancer from the earlier stages was 86% and 70% respectively (Asaga et al., 2010). The use of the novel RT-qPCR in direct serum assay reduced mechanical and human errors and minimized the time and overall cost (Asaga et al., 2010). CA 15-3 and CEA are low in sensitivity and specificity, therefore cannot be used as a diagnostic marker (Ng et al., 2013). Comparatively, miR-21 shows a better specificity and sensitivity (Asaga et al., 2010). Current methods 3D mammography is an evolution of the mammography technology (Houssami et al., 2017). 3D mammography improves cancer visibility by reducing the images of overlapping breast tissue, leading to the visualization of benign and malignant breast lesions which would have been masked in traditional mammography (Houssami et al., 2016). It may also decrease the false positive recall. Cost and time-taken to read a 3D mammography are limitations of this method (Houssami et al., 2017). A study by Ng et al., (2013) detected elevation in miR-451, miR-16 and miR-21, while a reduction in miR-145 was observed in the plasma of breast cancer patients. The combination of miR-451 and miR-145 served as the best biomarkers for breast cancer with an optimal specificity of 92% and optimal sensitivity of 90% in distinguishing breast cancer patients from control subjects of other types of cancers (gastric cancer, lung cancer) recruited in the study (Ng et al., 2013). This study by Ng et al., (2013) recognized a combination of miRNAs specific to breast cancer and not the other cancers. Drawbacks include the lack of information regarding whether these miRNAs can be used to distinguish between the subtypes of breast cancer and between sporadic and familial forms (Ng et al., 2013). The study done by Asaga et al., (2010) only focused on miR-21 as a predictive marker in breast cancer, but miR-21 has been implicated in other types of cancer too. Comparatively the study done by Ng et al. , (2013) has identified biomarkers specific to breast cancer. In conclusion, the use of miR-21 as a biomarker in breast cancer presented a correlation of circulating miR-21 with the stage of breast cancer. More research is required to establish miR-21 as an important biomarker in breast cancer (Asaga et al., 2010). A combined expression analysis of miR-21 and miR-191 increased the specificity to 100% and sensitivity to 92% (Chen and Wang, 2013). The study done by Chen and Wang (2013) proved that a combination of miRNAs were better as a predictive biomarker for breast cancer. WORD COUNT ABSTRACT 243 EVALUATION 1039 REFERENCES Asaga, S., Kuo, C., Nguyen, T., Terpenning, M., Giuliano, A. and Hoon, D. (2010). Direct Serum Assay for MicroRNA-21 Concentrations in Early and Advanced Breast Cancer. Clinical Chemistry, 57(1), pp.84-91.Boyd, N., Guo, H., Martin, L., Sun, L., Stone, J., Fishell, E., Jong, R., Hislop, G., Chiarelli, A., Minkin, S. and Yaffe, M. (2007). Mammographic Density and the Risk and Detection of Breast Cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine, 356(3), pp.227-236. Chen, J. and Wang, X. (2013). MicroRNA-21 in breast cancer: diagnostic and prognostic potential. Clinical and Translational Oncology, 16(3), pp.225-233. Duffy, M. (2001). Biochemical markers in breast cancer: which ones are clinically useful?. Clinical Biochemistry, 34(5), pp.347-352. Duffy, M., Evoy, D. and McDermott, E. (2010). CA 15-3: Uses and limitation as a biomarker for breast cancer. Clinica Chimica Acta, 411(23-24), pp.1869-1874. Esserman, L., Shieh, Y., Park, J. and Ozanne, E. (2007). A role for biomarkers in the screening and diagnosis of breast cancer in younger women. Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics, 7(5), pp.533-544. Houssami, N., Là ¥ng, K., Bernardi, D., Tagliafico, A., Zackrisson, S. and Skaane, P. (2016). Digital breast tomosynthesis (3D-mammography) screening: A pictorial review of screen-detected cancers and false recalls attributed to tomosynthesis in prospective screening trials. The Breast, 26, pp.119-134. Houssami, N., Bernardi, D., Pellegrini, M., Valentini, M., Fantà ², C., Ostillio, L., Tuttobene, P., Luparia, A. and Macaskill, P. (2017). Breast cancer detection using single-reading of breast tomosynthesis (3D-mammography) compared to double-reading of 2D-mammography: Evidence from a population-based trial. Cancer Epidemiology, 47, pp.94-99. Kabel, A. (2017). Tumor markers of breast cancer: New prospectives. Journal of Oncological Sciences. Ng, E., Li, R., Shin, V., Jin, H., Leung, C., Ma, E., Pang, R., Chua, D., Chu, K., Law, W., Law, S., Poon, R. and Kwong, A. (2013). Circulating microRNAs as Specific Biomarkers for Breast Cancer Detection. PLoS ONE, 8(1), p.e53141. Pisano, E., Gatsonis, C., Hendrick, E., Yaffe, M., Baum, J., Acharyya, S., Conant, E., Fajardo, L., Bassett, L., DOrsi, C., Jong, R. and Rebner, M. (2005). Diagnostic Performance of Digital versus Film Mammography for Breast-Cancer Screening. New England Journal of Medicine, 353(17), pp.1773-1783.

Macbeth :: essays research papers

Macbeth was one of William Shakespeare’s finest plays. Although many people have read Macbeth, not many people know that King Macbeth of Scotland actually existed and what influenced Shakespeare to write about him. English culture and society as well as the historical figure Macbeth impacted Shakespeare’s infamous play. The historical King Macbeth reigned in Scotland for 17 years from 1040-1057. He had a wife named Coruoch and a stepson named Luloch. Although Macbeth did kill Duncan, he was not the gentle king as described in Macbeth. Killing a king was not uncommon at this time as, Macbeth’s 7-9 predecessors were killed as well. In 1050, Macbeth went on a religious pilgrimage to Rome to seek absolution for Duncan’s death. Unlike Macbeth, Malcolm (rather than Macduff) killed the historical Macbeth. Luloch, known as the â€Å"Idiot,† reigned for five months after Macbeth’s death until Malcom overthrew him. Although there are differences between Shakespeare’s Macbeth and the historical figure Macbeth, it is obvious that Shakespeare based his character on this Scottish king. The person who influenced Shakespeare to write Macbeth was King James I of England, who reigned from 1566 to 1625. King James, who was also known as King James 6 of Scotland, succeeded the throne of Queen Elizabeth. James’ mother, Mary Queen of Scots, was known as a tragic queen since she killed James father. At age sixteen, rivals kidnapped James and at age 20, James’ mother was executed. King James was intellectual, scholarly, and an â€Å"insatiable curiost.† His ideal of heaven was the Oxford Library. In 1584, while he was only 18 years old, James wrote Essays of Apprentice in Fine Arts of Poetry. He discussed a new translation of the bible, The Authorized Version, which is the most popular bible today. James also wrote in defense of the Divine Right of Kings- that kings were chosen by God, but they must rule well. King James succeeded in ruling an authoritarian government, but he ruled no better than today’s democratic governments. He was known as the wisest fool in Christendom. James was also eager for social reform. He wrote A Counterblast to Tobacco, which is much like the anti-smoking campaigns of modern times. When Shakespeare wrote Macbeth, he was obviously aware of James concern with witchcraft. King James wrote the Daemonologie, an account of his experiences with witchcraft. Once a witch tried to melt James’ image in wax, and another witch tried to poison him with toad venom.

Product Life Cycle Theory

The product life cycle theory is used to comprehend and analyze various maturity stages of products and industries. Product innovation and diffusion influence long-term patterns of international trade. This term product life cycle was used for the first time in 1965, by Theodore Levitt in an Harvard Business Review article: â€Å"Exploit the Product Life Cycle†. Anything that satisfies a consumer's need is called a ‘product'. It may be a tangible product (clothes, crockery, cars, house, gadgets) or an intangible service (banking, health care, hotel service, airline service).Irrespective of the kind of product, all products introduced into the market undergo a common life cycle. To understand what this product life cycle theory is all about, let us have a quick look at its definition. Product Life Cycle Definition A product life cycle refers to the time period between the launch of a product into the market till it is finally withdrawn. In a nut shell, product life cycle or PLC is an odyssey from new and innovative to old and outdated! This cycle is split into four different stages which encompass the product's journey from its entry to exit from the market. Product Life Cycle StagesThis cycle is based on the all familiar biological life cycle, wherein a seed is planted (introduction stage), germinates (growth stage), sends out roots in the ground and shoots with branches and leaves against gravity, thereby maturing into an adult (maturity stage). As the plant lives its life and nears old age, it shrivels up, shrinks and dies out (decline stage). Similarly, a product also has a life cycle of its own. A product's entry or launching phase into the market corresponds to the introduction stage. As the product gains popularity and wins the trust of consumers it begins to grow.Further, with increasing sales, the product captures enough market share and gets stable in the market. This is called the maturity stage. However, after some time, the product gets overpowered by latest technological developments and entry of superior competitors in the market. Soon the product becomes obsolete and needs to be withdrawn from the market. This is the decline phase. This was the crux of a product life cycle theory and the graph of a product's life cycle looks like a bell-shaped curve. Let us delve more into this management theory. Introduction Stage After conducting thorough market research, the company develops its product.Once the product is ready, a test market is carried out to check the viability of the product in the actual market, before it can set foot into the mass market. Results of the test market are used to make correction if any and then launched into the market with various promotional strategies. Since the product has just been introduced, growth observed is very slight, market size is small and marketing cost are steep (promotional cost, costs of setting up distribution channels). Thus, introduction stage is an awareness creatin g stage and is not associated with profits!However, strict vigilance is required to ensure that the product enters the growth stage. Identifying hindering factors and nipping them off at the bud stage is crucial for the product's future. If corrections cannot be made or are impractical, the marketer withdraws the product from the market. Read more on types of market research. Growth Stage Once the introductory stage goes as per expected, the initial spark has been set, however, the fire has to be kindled by proper care. The marketer has managed to gain consumers attention and now works on increasing their product's market share.As output increases, economies of scale is seen and better prices come about, conducing to profits in this stage. The marketer maintains the quality and features of the product (may add additional features) and seek brand building. The aim here is to coax consumers to prefer and choose this product rather than those sold by competitors. As sales increase dist ribution channels are added and the product is marketed to a broader audience. Thus, rapid sales and profits are characteristics of this stage. Read more on marketing tools. Maturity StageThis stage views the most competition as different companies struggle to maintain their respective market shares. The cliche ‘survival of the fittest' is applicable here. Companies are busy monitoring product's value by the consumers and its sales generation. Most of the profits are made in this stage and research costs are minimum. Any research conducted will be confined to product enhancement and improvement alone. Since consumers are aware of the product, promotional and advertising costs will also be lower. In the midst of stiff competition, companies may even reduce their prices in response to the tough times.The maturity stage is the stabilizing stage, wherein sales are high, but their pace is slow, however, brand loyalty develops imparting profits. Read more on marketing plans. Decline Stage After a period of stable growth, the revenue generated from sales of the product starts dipping due to market saturation, stiff competition and latest technological developments. The consumer loses interest in this product and begins to seek other options. This stage is characterized by shrinking market share, dwindling product popularity and plummeting profits. This stage is a very delicate stage and needs to be handled wisely.The type of response contributes to the future of the product. The company needs to take special efforts to raise the product's popularity in the market once again, by either reducing cost of the product, tapping new markets or withdrawing the product. Read more on: †¢Marketing Services †¢Marketing Mix †¢Marketing Tips It is important to note that, not all products go through the entire life cycle. Just as how not all seeds sown germinate, not all products launched into the market succeed. Some flop at the introductory stage, while some fail to capture market share due to quick fizzling out.Moreover, some marketers quickly change strategies when the product reaches decline phase and by various promotional strategies regain the lost glory, thereby achieving cyclic maturity phases. Application of product life cycle is important to marketers because via this analysis they can manage their product well and prevent it from incurring losses. A well-managed product life cycle leads to rise in profits and does not necessarily end. Product innovations, new marketing strategies,etc. keeps the product appealing to customers for a very long period of time.Hope this article on product life cycle theory was informative and helpful! The product life-cycle theory is an economic theory that was developed by Raymond Vernon in response to the failure of the Heckscher-Ohlin model to explain the observed pattern of international trade. The theory suggests that early in a product's life-cycle all the parts and labor associated with that product come from the area in which it was invented. After the product becomes adopted and used in the world markets, production gradually moves away from the point of origin.In some situations, the product becomes an item that is imported by its original country of invention. [1] A commonly used example of this is the invention, growth and production of the personal computer with respect to the United States. The model applies to labor-saving and capital-using products that (at least at first) cater to high-income groups. In the new product stage, the product is produced and consumed in the US; no export trade occurs. In the maturing product stage, mass-production techniques are developed and foreign demand (in developed countries) expands; the US now exports the product to other developed countries.In the standardized product stage, production moves to developing countries, which then export the product to developed countries. The model demonstrates dynamic comparative advantage. The country that has the comparative advantage in the production of the product changes from the innovating (developed) country to the developing countries. Contents [hide] †¢1 Product life-cycle o1. 1 Stage 1: Introduction o1. 2 Stage 2: Growth o1. 3 Stage 3: Maturity o1. 4 Stage 4: Saturation o1. 5 Stage 5: Decline †¢2 References [edit]Product life-cycle There are four stages in a product's life cycle: introduction ?growth ?maturity ?saturation ?decline The location of production depends on the stage of the cycle. [edit]Stage 1: Introduction New products are introduced to meet local (i. e. , national) needs, and new products are first exported to similar countries, countries with similar needs, preferences, and incomes. If we also presume similar evolutionary patterns for all countries, then products are introduced in the most advanced nations. (E. g. , the IBM PCs were produced in the US and spread quickly throughout the industrialized countries. ) [edit]Stage 2: Growt hA copy product is produced elsewhere and introduced in the home country (and elsewhere) to capture growth in the home market. This moves production to other countries, usually on the basis of cost of production. (E. g. , the clones of the early IBM PCs were not produced in the US. ) The Period till the the Maturity Stage is known as the Saturation Period. [edit]Stage 3: Maturity The industry contracts and concentrates — the lowest cost producer wins here. (E. g. , the many clones of the PC are made almost entirely in lowest cost locations. ) [edit]Stage 4: Saturation This is a period of stability.The sales of the product reach the peak and there is no further possibility to increase it. this stage is characterised by:  ¦ Saturation of sales (at the early part of this stage sales remain stable then it starts falling).  ¦ It continues till substitutes enter into the market.  ¦ Marketer must try to develop new and alternative uses of product. [edit]Stage 5: Decline Poor c ountries constitute the only markets for the product. Therefore almost all declining products are produced in developing countries. (E. g. , PCs are a very poor example here, mainly because there is weak demand for computers in developing countries.A better example is textiles. ) Note that a particular firm or industry (in a country) stays in a market by adapting what they make and sell, i. e. , by riding the waves. For example, approximately 80% of the revenues of H-P are from products they did not sell five years ago. the profits go back to the host old country. ?†¦ trade theory holding that a company will begin by exporting its product and later undertake foreign direct investment as the product moves through its lifecycle ? As products mature, both location of sales and optimal production changes ?Affects the direction and flow of imports and exports ?Globalization and integration of the economy makes this theory less valid ?Trade implication ? ?Increased emphasis on techno logy’s impact on product cost ? Explained international investment ?Limitations ?Most appropriate for technology-based products ?Some products not easily characterized by stages of maturity ? Most relevant to products produced through mass production Marketing > Product Life Cycle The Product Life Cycle A product's life cycle (PLC) can be divided into several stages characterized by the revenue generated by the product.If a curve is drawn showing product revenue over time, it may take one of many different shapes, an example of which is shown below: Product Life Cycle Curve The life cycle concept may apply to a brand or to a category of product. Its duration may be as short as a few months for a fad item or a century or more for product categories such as the gasoline-powered automobile. Product development is the incubation stage of the product life cycle. There are no sales and the firm prepares to introduce the product. As the product progresses through its life cycle, changes in the marketing mix usually are equired in order to adjust to the evolving challenges and opportunities. Introduction Stage When the product is introduced, sales will be low until customers become aware of the product and its benefits. Some firms may announce their product before it is introduced, but such announcements also alert competitors and remove the element of surprise. Advertising costs typically are high during this stage in order to rapidly increase customer awareness of the product and to target the early adopters. During the introductory stage the firm is likely to incur additional costs associated with the initial distribution of the product.These higher costs coupled with a low sales volume usually make the introduction stage a period of negative profits. During the introduction stage, the primary goal is to establish a market and build primary demand for the product class. The following are some of the marketing mix implications of the introduction stage: â € ¢Product – one or few products, relatively undifferentiated †¢Price – Generally high, assuming a skim pricing strategy for a high profit margin as the early adopters buy the product and the firm seeks to recoup development costs quickly.In some cases a penetration pricing strategy is used and introductory prices are set low to gain market share rapidly. †¢Distribution – Distribution is selective and scattered as the firm commences implementation of the distribution plan. †¢Promotion – Promotion is aimed at building brand awareness. Samples or trial incentives may be directed toward early adopters. The introductory promotion also is intended to convince potential resellers to carry the product. Growth Stage The growth stage is a period of rapid revenue growth.Sales increase as more customers become aware of the product and its benefits and additional market segments are targeted. Once the product has been proven a success and customers b egin asking for it, sales will increase further as more retailers become interested in carrying it. The marketing team may expand the distribution at this point. When competitors enter the market, often during the later part of the growth stage, there may be price competition and/or increased promotional costs in order to convince consumers that the firm's product is better than that of the competition.During the growth stage, the goal is to gain consumer preference and increase sales. The marketing mix may be modified as follows: †¢Product – New product features and packaging options; improvement of product quality. †¢Price – Maintained at a high level if demand is high, or reduced to capture additional customers. †¢Distribution – Distribution becomes more intensive. Trade discounts are minimal if resellers show a strong interest in the product. †¢Promotion – Increased advertising to build brand preference. Maturity Stage The maturity stage is the most profitable.While sales continue to increase into this stage, they do so at a slower pace. Because brand awareness is strong, advertising expenditures will be reduced. Competition may result in decreased market share and/or prices. The competing products may be very similar at this point, increasing the difficulty of differentiating the product. The firm places effort into encouraging competitors' customers to switch, increasing usage per customer, and converting non-users into customers. Sales promotions may be offered to encourage retailers to give the product more shelf space over competing products.During the maturity stage, the primary goal is to maintain market share and extend the product life cycle. Marketing mix decisions may include: †¢Product – Modifications are made and features are added in order to differentiate the product from competing products that may have been introduced. †¢Price – Possible price reductions in response to competition while avoiding a price war. †¢Distribution – New distribution channels and incentives to resellers in order to avoid losing shelf space. †¢Promotion – Emphasis on differentiation and building of brand loyalty. Incentives to get competitors' customers to switch.Decline Stage Eventually sales begin to decline as the market becomes saturated, the product becomes technologically obsolete, or customer tastes change. If the product has developed brand loyalty, the profitability may be maintained longer. Unit costs may increase with the declining production volumes and eventually no more profit can be made. During the decline phase, the firm generally has three options: †¢Maintain the product in hopes that competitors will exit. Reduce costs and find new uses for the product. †¢Harvest it, reducing marketing support and coasting along until no more profit can be made. Discontinue the product when no more profit can be made or there is a succes sor product. The marketing mix may be modified as follows: †¢Product – The number of products in the product line may be reduced. Rejuvenate surviving products to make them look new again. †¢Price – Prices may be lowered to liquidate inventory of discontinued products. Prices may be maintained for continued products serving a niche market. †¢Distribution – Distribution becomes more selective. Channels that no longer are profitable are phased out. †¢Promotion – Expenditures are lower and aimed at reinforcing the brand image for continued products.Limitations of the Product Life Cycle Concept The term â€Å"life cycle† implies a well-defined life cycle as observed in living organisms, but products do not have such a predictable life and the specific life cycle curves followed by different products vary substantially. Consequently, the life cycle concept is not well-suited for the forecasting of product sales. Furthermore, critics have argued that the product life cycle may become self-fulfilling. For example, if sales peak and then decline, managers may conclude that the product is in the decline phase and therefore cut the advertising budget, thus precipitating a further decline.Nonetheless, the product life cycle concept helps marketing managers to plan alternate marketing strategies to address the challenges that their products are likely to face. It also is useful for monitoring sales results over time and comparing them to those of products having a similar life cycle. Marketing > Product LifecycleThe Product Cycle and its Implications Let us begin by reviewing Vernon’s principal points regarding the technological and geographical transitions of industries. His product-cycle paradigm suggested that an industry’s competitiveness will go through a predictable series of stages: To begin with, U.S. -controlled enterprises generate new products and processes in response to the high per capit a income and the relative availability of productive factors in the United States; they introduce these products or processes abroad through exports; when their export position is threatened they establish overseas subsidiaries to exploit what remains of their advantage; they retain their oligopolistic advantage for a period of time, then lose it as the basis for the original lead is completely eroded. (1971: 66)While Vernon’s main objective was to explain the causes and consequences of foreign investment, the stages that he identified also implied that an industry’s perspective on trade policyComment on Deardorff 2 will evolve. Industries can be expected to favor open markets when they are competitive and to favor protection when they are not. Deardorff’s analysis is largely consonant with this cycle, but brings into closer consideration the role of developing countries’ exports in challenging the developed countries’ industries.While I am largely in agreement with the basic points raised by both Vernon and Deardorff, I would suggest two adjustments. The first is that a different policy question may be in order. To paraphrase, Deardorff’s question seems to be, â€Å"Will developed countries respond to increased competition from developing countries by erecting new barriers to trade? † I would instead ask, â€Å"How will the interests of declining industries in developed countries affect the pace and form of new trade liberalization? † While I understand the usefulness of the simplifying assumption that the two countries in the model â€Å"are initially engaged in free trade† (ibid. 3), I think it is equally simple and more realistic to begin with the assumption that restrictions to trade already exist. It would be a great exaggeration to claim that the WTO rules are so watertight as to prevent countries from imposing any new restrictions on trade, but I would quarrel with the suggestion that we â €Å"simply assume that [increased import competition will] lead the North to implement a tariff on imports† (ibid. : 9). The track record for both legislated protection 1 and safeguards cases 2 suggests that protectionist industries have had little success in winning support from government.The clear trend of the past half century has been towards the reduction of tariffs and (more recently) the replacement or elimination of quotas. In an environment of declining tariff barriers, the best that most protectionist industries can hope for is to secure a pledge that their products be exempted from reductions. Even when one acknowledges the continuation of â€Å"peak† tariffs in some industries and the mischief that can be done with antidumping duties and other instruments of protection, the fact remains that markets are much more open today than they were in decades past.Moreover, the rules are more comprehensive and enforceable under the WTO than they were under the GATT. The second important departure is that the range of options is not limited to a dichotomous choice between â€Å"free trade† or â€Å"protection. † Beyond the almost trivial point that there are many degrees of openness, representing every step from zero barriers to confiscatory levels of protection, discrimination is an equally important consideration. Here the rules of the GATT and WTO have been permissive.Free trade agreements (FTAs) and customs unions are allowable exceptions to the general rule of universal most-favored-nation treatment (provided that they meet the requirements of GATT Article XXIV), and preferential trade programs such as the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) are granted waivers. While each of these options provide for more liberal trade, and many extend special treatment to developing countries, they are widely seen as a â€Å"second-best† alternative to nondiscriminatory liberalization.For reasons that I explore below, however, th e increasing use of these discriminatory instruments can also be portrayed as a natural consequence of the product cycle. 1 Although there have been many efforts since the Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act of 1930 to enact bills imposing tariffs or quotas on imports, no major bills have been enacted over a presidential veto. There have been several instances, however, in which presidents felt obliged to make concessions to protectionist demands in order to win congressional approval of some other market-opening initiative (especially new grants of negotiating authority or the approval of a trade agreement).In other words, some of the rare steps backward have been price for making two steps forward. 2 Petitioners have succeeded in winning import protection in only 23 of the 70 cases considered in the quarter century since enactment of the current safeguards law (section 201 of the Trade Act of 1974). Comment on Deardorff 3 Implications of the Product Cycle for Trade Policy The product-cycle mo del could be used to explain any one of three approaches to trade policy.Depending on how one views the interests of firms and the responses of government, the cycle could be predicted to encourage more open markets, more protection, or more discrimination. Under the benign view that seems implicit in Vernon’s analysis, the product cycle can be portrayed as a progressive mechanism. A country with an efficient process of â€Å"creative destruction† could theoretically sustain a permanent free-trade orientation, with few or no exceptions for specific industries.Vernon’s views were similar to those of Schumpeter (1936), who believed that a combination of entrepreneurial innovation and periodic depressions provided just such an engine of progress. A real free-trading country would regularly produce a new crop of innovators, while firms that lost their competitiveness would either find new lines of work or be swept away when the business cycle swung downward. The sur vivors favor open markets. This Darwinian optimism is challenged, however, if firms and workers in a declining industry refuse to go quietly into that good night.A more pessimistic interpretation is that old firms and their workers do not always conveniently disappear or get reabsorbed into the economy, but instead seek ways to keep alive even after they pass their prime. Deardorff’s analysis falls into this second category. He concludes that factor owners in the developed country will respond to a competitive challenge by demanding and receiving protection. I offer yet a third alternative, in which the product cycle encourages the reduction of trade barriers but does so in an increasingly discriminatory fashion.My adaptation of Vernon’s model, which is illustrated in Figure 1, departs from the original in two ways. First, I believe that a wider range of stages should be represented in the model. Second, I more explicitly state what the trade (in addition to the invest ment) preferences of an industry will be as it passes through these stages. My adaptation recognizes that the policy options available to industries and countries are not limited to opening or closing the market, but also allow for discriminatory initiatives that better lend themselves to manipulation on behalf of specific firms or trading partners.The stages might respectively be termed pre-competitive, semi-competitive, competitive, and post-competitive. The distinctions between industries in stages 2, 3, and 4A are particularly important. Each one of these stages is â€Å"pro-trade,† but they favor different emphases in both the objectives and form of trade agreements. Only the Stage 3A industry is the pure free-trader. Industries in stages 2, 3B, and 4A each take a more qualified approach to open markets, and may be reluctant to support universal liberalization.An industry’s most critical choice comes in the fourth stage, when it must choose between retreat into th e domestic market or relocation of its production offshore. The initial decision to invest overseas might have been made in an earlier stage, prompted by such diverse objectives as gaining or maintaining access to a large and protected foreign market, taking advantage of lower wage rates and less restrictive regulatory environments, or reducing transportation costs. When an industry’s competitiveness declines, however, it could decide to shift most or all of its production offshore.Those firms that become multinational producers (Stage 4A) acquire interests and preferences very different from those that do not (Stage 4B). A multinational producer will be much more favorably disposed towards open markets than a â€Å"mature† domestic industry, but will not inevitably be a paragon of free-trade purism. These producers may perceive a strong incentive to support discriminatory options, especially if they create sanctuary markets at home or abroad. Home | About | Privacy | Reprints | Terms of UseCopyright  © 2002-2010 NetMBA. com. All rights reserved. This web site is operated by the Internet Center for Management and Business Administration, Inc. Search NetMBA Site Information Home About Privacy Reprints Terms of Use Marketing Accounting Economics Finance Management Marketing Operations Statistics Strategy ? ?In recent years an extensive theoretical literature has been offered examining the implications of the product cycle (PC) model of trade (Hirsch 1967; Vernon 1966). 1) Emphasizing knowledge transfers, Krugman (1979) constructed a general equilibrium model consisting of an innovating North country and an imitating South country. (2) A key implication of the PC is that the North must continually innovate in the face of the South's ability to eventually imitate each new product. The flying-geese (FG) theory (inter alia, Akamatsu, 1935; Kojima, 2000, 2003; Ozawa, 1993, 2001, 2005) elaborates on the mature stage of the PC by examining conditions un der which an initially imitating South country itself looses the comparative advantage in producing the mature product due to rising labor costs.The loss in comparative advantage results in the further and sequential transfer of production to less developed other South countries and the accompanying recycling of the North's import market among themselves, a phenomenon that can be called â€Å"market or comparative advantage recycling† (Ozawa, 1993; United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 1995). ?This article specifically examines one particular mature PC import, TV sets, in the U. S. arket and its changing pattern of exporting economies from East Asia–first, from Japan and then from the Newly Industrializing Economies (NIEs) (Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea), from the Association of Southeast Asian Nations-4 (ASEAN-4) (Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines), and more recently, from China. ?True, technological progress continues in the TV set industry (e. g. , digitalization, flat-panel sets, and high definition TV [HDTV]), but set manufacturing has practically disappeared in the United States (Chandler, 2001).Incremental innovations are now being introduced mostly in the South/follower countries themselves, especially in Japan and South Korea. East Asia has emerged as the world's largest concentration of consumer electronics production. (3) In this sense, TV sets are certainly a â€Å"mature† product for the United States (too mature to be retained). In short, our study examines the phenomenon of PC-based imports and market recycling as witnessed in the United States and explores policy implications for both North and South countries in the age of globalization. There have been several tests for the existence of the PC. Tsurumi and Tsurumi (1980) found support for the PC by determining that the U. S. price elasticity of demand for color TV sets increased over time as U. S. consumers chose between dome stic- and Japanese-produced color TV sets. Audretsch (1987) also found support by determining that growth industries tend to be more R ; D oriented while mature industries allocate fewer resources to this activity.Cantwell (1995) concluded that over time the share of patents of multinational corporations located abroad increased for most countries from 1920 to 1990, which supported the internationalization of investment by technological leaders. Gagnon and Rose (1995) found that a trade surplus (deficit) of a commodity is likely to persist over a long period of time, a trend that is counter to the PC and more consistent with factor proportions theory (which closely parallels the FG theory). ?Econometric tests for the FG theory have been limited.Dowling and Cheang (2000) found support for the FG theory by utilizing both Balassa's â€Å"revealed† comparative advantage index and foreign direct investment (FDI) ratios for East Asian countries. Using Spearman rank correlation coef ficients and examining three periods (1970-95, 1970-85, and 1985-95), they found that economic development trickled down from Japan to the NIEs and then to ASEAN-4. Cutler et al. (2003) analyzed labor-intensive trade data from Japan, the NIEs, the ASEAN-4, and China to the United States and found support for the FG theory (market recycling). In this article, we are interested in testing for the dynamics of the combined PC-FG framework. Using annual data from 1961 to 2002 for TV sets, we use cointegration techniques to estimate a system of multiple cointegrated vectors representing the sequential transfer of the U. S. TV import market from Japan to the NIEs, to the ASEAN-4, and finally to China. We develop a methodology of interpreting both the cointegrating vectors and the speeds of adjustment as a technique to test for the recycling of the U. S. import market among the East Asian economies.We argue that our analysis has implications for the emerging HDTV and flat-panel TV sets' mar kets as well as patterns of behavior in lower developed South countries such as China, Vietnam, and India as these countries are actively pursuing inward FDI in higher value-added industries. ?Section II presents the theoretical framework, and section III provides the data and background information about the region's TV set manufacturing. Section IV discusses the empirical techniques and results of the analysis. Section V touches on policy implications and offers conclusions. ?II.CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ?Electronics is an R & D-based industry where new products and processes are constantly innovated and competitiveness shifts from one product to another sequentially, an industry that is characterized by short PCs. The Schumpeterian concept of â€Å"creative destruction† aptly applies to innovators' home markets. A fast pace of technological standardization and maturity for a given new product leads to an equally swift outward shift of production from the innovators' (North) cou ntry to overseas, as conceptualized in the PC theory of trade and investment.In the early developmental phase of electronics, the United States was the dominant source of innovations, as seen in the original PC theory (Hirsch, 1967; Vernon, 1966), but other countries in Europe and East Asia also soon emerged as active innovators, as presented in the revised version (Vernon, 1979). Nonetheless, the United States still continues to play the major roles of both technology and market providers to East Asian economies.Yet, as described in the original PC theory, conventional TV sets and many other mature electronic products have followed the typical pattern of a sequence from U. S. domestic production to exports, to overseas production, and to imports. (4) These imports come mostly from East Asia. ?What is equally interesting is that once an electronic product becomes a mature â€Å"commodity,† whose competitiveness is basically determined by labor costs, its production shifts fro m one South country to another in the persistent search of lower cost labor.This development is facilitated especially when lower echelon South countries liberalize their trade and investment regimes so as to attract production from higher developed South countries. Such a successive transmigration of production of a standardized product therefore exhibits a changing pattern of production over time within the South countries, while the United States remains the major import market.This phenomenon of production transmigration down the intraregional hierarchy of South countries differentiated in terms of the stages of economic development and the levels of technological sophistication is captured in the FG model. ?Viewed in the above light, the PC theory and the FG model complement each other, as schematically illustrated in Figure 1. A new product is innovated first in a high-income (high-wage) country like the United States and initially manufactured and exported from the innovator' s home country (i. e. , the â€Å"introduction† and â€Å"growth† stages, from †¦ ?

Create and Evaluate a Code of Conduct

A corporate Code of Conduct, sometimes also refered to as Code of Ethics, helps a company to show to all involved parties, internal and external, the standards that govern its conduct, thereby conveying its commitment to responsible practice wherever it operates. As you know, there have been many recent legal and paralegal initiatives to promote or require good conduct by corporations. Because there are now so many of these guidelines, it is not simple to get an overview, so that you're able to quickly assess if your firm's Code of Conduct is ‘worldclass'. A useful article in the HBR of Dec 2005 by Professors Lynn Paine, Rohit Deshpande, Joshua D. Margolis, and Kim Eric Bettcher may help: it provides a useful overview of all (? ) things that should be considered in any Corporate Code of Conduct. The authors suggest 8 governing ethical principles which taken together they call: The Global Business Standards Codex (GBS Codex). These 8 principles to create or evaluate a Code of Conduct and their most important aspects are: The Fiduciary Principle (Diligence, Loyalty). The Property Principle (Protection, Theft). The Reliability Principle (Contracts Premises, Commitments). The Transparency Principle (Thruthfulness, Deception, Disclosure, Candor, Objectivity). The Dignity Principle (Respect for the Individual, Health and Safety, Privacy and Confidentiality, Use of Force, Associatiation & Expression, Learning & Development, Employment Security). The Fairness Principle (Fair Dealing, Fair Treatment, Fair Competition, Fair Process). The Citizenship Principle (Law & Regulation, Public Goods, Cooperation with Authorities, Political Noninvolvement, Civic Contribution, . The Responsiveness Principle (Addressing Concerns, Public Involvement).